Black Soldier Fly Hermetia illucens (L.): Ideal Environmental Conditions and Rearing Strategies
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55446/IJE.2022.166Keywords:
Hermetia illucens, mating, environmental factors, oviposition, lifecycle, mass rearing, organic waste, development time, survival rate, adult weight, life-history traitsAbstract
Endeavours to recycle organic waste utilizing black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens (L.) into waste management and high nutrient biomass development have indeed picked up momentum recently. But there is not much data on their appropriate rearing conditions. Very few studies delineating the fecundity and reproduction capacities of BSFs concluded that the presence of natural sunlight or artificial light with intensity of 110-200 μ mol m2s-1 and above triggers mating and oviposition (about 85-90 %) at successfully higher rates along with ideal temperature (26 to 40 °C) and relative humidity (40-70 %) conditions. Optimum food moisture (50-80%) also plays a vital role in enhancing the consumption rate of waste and therefore the treatment efficiency of the larvae. Significant development of the BSF larvae and the treatment efficiencies were also observed to be governed by the pH of waste and the optimum range was defined to be of 6.0 to 9.0. The type of organic waste also equally influences the development, fecundity, and the lifespan of flies. The present review highlights the significant research that has been conducted with respect to lifecycle of BSFs, under the set of different light combinations (LED and fluorescent lights), temperatures and organic waste composites (protein rich and fat rich substrates). Conclusively, it was inferred that ameliorations in rearing conditions such as investigation of suitable light source, modifications in egg collection and hatching structures and knowledge of biology of flies can further boost the reproductive capability of fly thereby promoting successful insect rearing and mass production.
Downloads
Metrics
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
References
Addo-Bediako A, Chown S L, Gaston K J. 2000. Thermal tolerance, climatic variability and latitude. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 267: 739-745.
Alvarez L. 2012. The role of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in sustainable waste management in northern climates, Electronic Theses and Dissertations 402. https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/402 .
Attiogbe F K, Ayim N Y K, Martey J. 2019. Effectiveness of black soldier fly larvae in composting mercury contaminated organic waste. Scientific African. 6, e00205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00205.
Banks I J. 2014. To Assess the impact of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae on faecal reduction in pit latrines. PhD thesis. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. https://doi.org/10.17037/PUBS.01917781.
Barragan- Fonseca K B, Dicke M, van Loon J J. 2017. Nutritional value of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) and its suitability as animal feed–a review. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 3(2): 105-120.
Boaru A, Vig A, Ladoşi D, Păpuc T, Struţi D, Georgescu B. 2019. The use of various oviposition structures for the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in improving the reproductive process in captivity. Animal Biology and Animal Husbandry 11(1).
Boykin K L. 2019. Assessing the nutritional value of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) used for reptile foods. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_theses/4927/
Briscoe A, Chittka L. 2001. The evolution of color vision in insects. Annual. Review of Entomology 46: 471-510.
Cammack J A, Tomberlin J K. 2017. The impact of diet protein and carbohydrate on select life-history traits of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Insects 8(2): 56.
Caruso D, Devic E, Wayan S I, Talamond P, Baras E. 2013. Technical handbook of domestication and production of Diptera black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens, Stratiomyidae. https://betuco-wp.be/BSF/BSF%20-Technical%20Handbook.pdf
Cheng J Y, Chiu S L, Lo I M. 2017. Effects of moisture content of food waste on residue separation, larval growth and larval survival in black soldier fly bioconversion. Waste Management 67: 315-323.
Chia S Y, Tanga C M, Khamis F M, Mohamed S A, Alifu D, Sevgan S, Fiaboe K K, Niassy S, van Loon J J, Dicke M, Ekesi S. 2018. Threshold temperatures and thermal requirements of black soldier fly Hermetia illucens: Implications for mass production. PloS One 13(11).
Cronin T W, Jarvilehto M, Weckstrom M, Lall A B. 2000. Tuning of photoreceptor spectral sensitivity in fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Journal of Comparative Physiology A 186: 1-12
Danieli P P, Lussiana C, Gasco L, Amici A, Ronchi B. 2019. The effects of diet formulation on the yield, proximate composition, and fatty acid profile of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) prepupae intended for animal feed. Animals 9(4): 178.
De Smet J, Wynants E, Cos P, Van Campenhout L. 2018. Microbial community dynamics during rearing of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) and impact on exploitation potential. Applied Environmental Microbiology 84(9): e02722-17.
Deutsch C A, Tewksbury J J, Huey R B, Sheldon K S, Ghalambor C K, Haak D C, Martin P R. 2008. Impacts of climate warming on terrestrial ectotherms across latitude. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105: 6668-6672.
Diener S, Studt Solano N M, Roa Gutiérrez F, Zurbrügg C, Tockner K. 2011b. Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste Biomass Valorization 2: 357-363.
Diener S, Zurbrügg C, Roa Gutiérrez F, Hong Nguyen D, Morel A, Koottatep T, Tockner K. 2011a. Black soldier fly larvae for organic waste treatment- prospects and constraints. Khulna, Bangladesh. Proceedings. Waste Safe 2nd international conference on solid waste management in the developing countries 978-984-33-2705-5.
Diener S, Zurbrugg C, Tockner K. 2009. Conversion of organic material by black soldier fly larvae: establishing optimal feeding rates. Waste Management and Research 27(6): 603-610.
Dixon A F G, Honˇek A, Keil P, Kotela M A A, Šizling A L, Jarošík V. 2009. Relationship between the minimum and maximum temperature thresholds for development in insects. Functional Ecology 23: 257-264.
Dortmans B, Diener S, Verstappen B M, Zurbrügg C. 2017. Black soldier fly biowaste processing: A step-by-step guide. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Dübendorf, Switzerland, 88.
Ewusie E A, Kwapong P K, Ofosu-Budu G, Sandrock C, Akumah A M, Nertey E K, Teye-Gaga C, Agyakwah S K. 2019. The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): Trapping and rearing of wild colonies in Ghana. Scientific African 5, e00134.
Gasco L, Dabbou S, Trocino A, Xiccato G, Capucchio M T, Biasato I, Dezzutto D, Birolo M, Meneguz M, Schiavone A. 2019. Effect of dietary supplementation with insect fats on growth performance, digestive efficiency and health of rabbits. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 10: 4.
Gobbi P, Martinez-Sanchez A, Rojo S. 2013. The effects of larval diet on adult life-history traits of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). European Journal of Entomology 110(3): 461.
Green T R, Popa R. 2012. Enhanced ammonia content in compost leachate processed by black soldier fly larvae. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 166 (6): 1381-1387.
Harden L M, Tomberlin J K. 2016. Effects of temperature and diet on black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) development. Forensic Science International 266:109-116.
Hasan H A, Dina F. 2019. Co-occurrence of different insect species in oviposition media of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Serangga 24(2).
Heussler C D, Walter A, Oberkofler H, Insam H, Arthofer W, Schlick-Steiner B C, Steiner F M. 2018. Influence of three artificial light sources on oviposition and half-life of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): Improving small-scale indoor rearing. PloS One 2018 13(5) e0197896. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197896.
Holmes L. 2010. Role of abiotic factors on the development and life history of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae. Electronic Theses and Dissertations 285. https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/285
Holmes L, Van Laerhoven S, Tomberlin J. 2016. Lower temperature threshold of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) development. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2(4): 255-262.
Holmes L A, Vanlaerhoven S L, Tomberlin J K. 2012. Relative humidity effects on the life history of Hermetia illucens (Diptera:Sstratiomyidae). Environmental Entomology 41 (4): 971-978.
Jarosík V, Kratochvíl L, Honék A, Dixon A F A. 2004. General rule for the dependence of developmental rate on temperature in ectothermic animals. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 271: S219-S221.
Leong S Y, Kutty S R M, Malakahmad A, Tan C K. 2016. Feasibility study of biodiesel production using lipids of Hermetia illucens larva fed with organic waste. Waste Management 47: 84-90.
Li C J. 2014. Conversion of spent grains and DDGS by black soldier flies. MSc thesis, Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Liu Q, Tomberlin J K, Brady J A, Sanford M R, Yu Z. 2008. Black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae reduce Escherichia coli in dairy manure. Environmental Entomology 37: 1525-1530.
Ma J, Lei Y, Rehman KU, Yu Z, Zhang J, Li W, Li Q, Tomberlin J K, Zheng L. 2018. Dynamic effects of initial pH of substrate on biological growth and metamorphosis of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Environmental Entomology 47 (1): 159-165.
Manyara N E. 2018. Optimization of production of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens L) for fish feed formulation. https://greeinsect.ku.dk/phd-projects-edible-insects/evans-nyakeri/hb_phd-thesis-cover/Evans-Thesis.pdf.
Martínez-Sánchez A, Magaña C, Saloña M Rojo S. 2011. First record of Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) on human corpses in Iberian Peninsula. Forensic Science International 206(1): e76-e78.
Meneguz M, Gasco L, Tomberlin J K .2018. Impact of pH and feeding system on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, L; Diptera: stratiomyidae) larval development. PLoS One 13 (8): e0202591. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202591.
Miranda C D, Cammack J A, Tomberlin J K. 2019. Life-History traits of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), reared on three manure types. Animals 9(5): 281. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9050281.
Müller A, Wolf D, Gutzeit H O. 2017. The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens– a promising source for sustainable production of proteins, lipids and bioactive substances. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C. 72(9-10): 351-363.
Myers H M, Tomberlin J K, Lambert B D, Kattes D. 2014. Development of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae fed dairy manure. Environmental Entomology 37(1): 11-15.
Nakamura S, Ichiki R T, Shimoda M, Morioka S. 2016. Small-scale rearing of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), in the laboratory: low-cost and year-round rearing. Applied Entomology and Zoology 51(1): 161-166.
Nguyen T T, Tomberlin J K, Vanlaerhoven S. 2013. Influence of resources on Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. Journal of Medical Entomology 50: 898-906.
Nguyen T T X, Tomberlin J K, Vanlaerhoven S. 2015. Ability of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae to recycle food waste. Environmental Entomology 44 (2): 406-410.
Nowak V, Persijn D, Rittenschober D, Charrondiere U R. 2016. Review of food composition data for edible insects. Food Chemistry 193: 39-46.
Oonincx D G A B, Van Broekhoven S, Van Huis A, Van Loon J J A. 2015b. Feed conversion, survival and development, and composition of four insect species on diets composed of food by products. PLoS One 10, e0144601.
Oonincx D G A B, Van Huis A. Van Loon J J A. 2015a. Nutrient utilisation by black soldier flies fed with chicken, pig, or cow manure. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1: 131-139.
Oonincx D G A B, Volk N, Diehl J J E, Van Loon J J A, Belušič G. 2016. Photoreceptor spectral sensitivity of the compound eyes of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) informing the design of LED-based illumination to enhance indoor reproduction. Journal of Insect Physiology 95: 133-139.
Park H H. 2016. Black soldier fly larvae manual. http://scholarworks.umass.edu.Erişim.tarihi
Pathak R, Sharma S, Prasad R. 2015. Study on occurrence of black soldier fly larvae in composting of kitchen waste. International Journal of Research in Biosciences 4 (4): 38-45.
Peitsch D, Feitz A, Hertel H, de Souza J, Ventura D F, Menzel R. 2001. The spectral input systems of hymenopteran insects and their receptor-based colour vision. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 170: 23-40
Renna M, Schiavone A, Gai F, Dabbou S, Lussiana C, Malfatto V, Prearo M, Capucchio M T, Biasato I, Biasibetti E. 2017. Evaluation of the suitability of a partially defatted black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal as ingredient for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) diets. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 8: 57.
Sheppard C D, Tomberlin J K, Joyce J A, Kiser B C, Sumner S M. 2002. Rearing methods for the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 39(4): 695-698.
Shumo M, Khamis F M, Tanga C M, Fiaboe K K, Subramanian S, Ekesi S, Van Huis A, Borgemeister C. 2019. Influence of temperature on selected life-history traits of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) reared on two common urban organic waste streams in Kenya. Animals 9(3): 79.
Shumo M, Osuga I M, Khamis F M, Tanga C M, Fiaboe K K, Subramanian S, Ekesi S, van Huis A, Borgemeister C. 2019. The nutritive value of black soldier fly larvae reared on common organic waste streams in Kenya. Scientific Reports 9(1): 1-3.
Singh A, Kumari K. 2019. An inclusive approach for organic waste treatment and valorisation using black soldier fly larvae: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 251: 109569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109569
Spranghers T, Michiels J, Vrancx J, Ovyn A, Eeckhout M, De Clercq P, De Smet S. 2018. Gut antimicrobial effects and nutritional value of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) prepupae for weaned piglets. Animal Feed Science and Technology 235: 33-42.
Stavenga D G. 1992. Eye regionalization and spectral tuning of retinal pigments in insects. Trends in Neurosciences 15: 213-218
Tomberlin J K, Adler P H, Myers H M. 2009. Development of the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in relation to temperature. Environmental Entomology 38(3): 930-934.
Tomberlin J K, Sheppard D C. 2002. Factors influencing mating and oviposition of black soldier flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in a colony. Journal of Entomological Science 37(4): 345-352.
Tomberlin J K, Sheppard D C, Joyce J A. 2002. Selected life-history traits of black soldier flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) reared on three artificial diets. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 2002 95(3): 379-386.
Tomberlin, J K, Sheppard D C. 2001. Lekking behaviour of the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Florida Entomologist 84: 729-730.
Tsagkarakis A E, Arapostathi E, Strouvalis G. 2015. First record of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, in Greece. Entomologia Hellenica 24: 27-30.
Tschirner M, Simon A. 2015. Influence of different growing substrates and processing on the nutrient composition of black soldier fly larvae destined for animal feed. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1: 249-259.
Ustuner T, Hasbenli A, Rozkosny R. 2003. The first record of Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus, 1758) (Diptera, Stratiomyidae) from the near east. Studia Dipterologica 10 (1): 181-185
Van Huis A, Tomberlin J. 2017. The potential of insects as food and feed. Insects as food and feed: from production to consumption; Van Huis A, Tomberlin J (eds). Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, The Netherlands. pp. 25-58.
Win SS, Ebner J H, Brownell S A, Pagano S S, Cruz-Diloné P, Trabold T A. 2018. Anaerobic digestion of black solider fly larvae (BSFL) biomass as part of an integrated bio refinery. Renewable Energy 127: 705-712.
Yu G, Chen Y, Yu Z, Cheng P. 2009. Research progress on the larvae and prepupae of black soldier fly Hermetia illucens used as animal feedstuff. Chinese Bulletin of Entomology 46 (1): 41-45.
Zhang J, Huang L, He J, Tomberlin J K, Li J, Lei C, Sun M, Liu Z, Yu Z. 2010. An artificial light source influences mating and oviposition of black soldier flies, Hermetia illucens. Journal of Insect Science 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.1673/031.010.20201
